Noun Phrases

A noun phrase is either a single noun or pronoun or any group of words containing a noun or a pronoun that function together as a noun or pronoun, as the subject or object of a verb.

For example, ‘they’, ‘books’, and ‘the books’ are noun phrases, but ‘book’ is just a noun.

Noun phrases normally consist of a head noun, which is optionally modified ("pre-modified" If the modifier is placed before the noun; "post modified" if the modifier is placed after the noun). Possible modifiers include:

*           Determiners: articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), numerals (two, five, etc.), possessives (my, their, etc.), and quantifiers (some, many, etc.). In English, determiners are usually placed before the noun;

*           Adjectives (the red ball); or

*           Complements, in the form of a prepositional phrase (such as: the student of physics), or a That-clause (the claim that the earth is round);

*           Modifiers; pre-modifiers if placed before the noun and usually either as nouns (the university student) or adjectives (the beautiful lady), or post-modifiers if placed after the noun. A post modifier may be either a prepositional phrase (the man with long hair) or a relative clause (the house where i live). The difference between modifiers and complements is that complements complete the meaning of the noun; complements are necessary, whereas modifiers are optional because they just give additional information about the noun.

Noun phrases can make use of an apposition structure. This means that the elements in the noun phrase are not in a head-modifier relationship, but in a relation of equality. An example of this is I, Caesar, declare ..., where "Caesar" and "I" do not modify each other.

The head of a noun phrase can be implied, as in "The Bold and the Beautiful" or Robin Hood's "rob from the rich and give to the poor"; an implied noun phrase is most commonly used as a generic plural referring to human beings. Another example of noun phrase with implied head is I choose the cheaper of the two.

That noun phrases can be headed by elements other than nouns—for instance, pronouns (They came) or determiners (I'll take these)—has given rise to the postulation of a determiner phrase instead of a noun phrase. The English language is not as permissive as some other languages, with regard to possible heads of noun phrases. German, for instance, allows adjectives as heads of noun phrases, as in Gib mir die Alten for Give me the olds (i.e. old ones).

Grammatical function

Noun phrases are prototypically used for acts of reference as in "The blonde girl shouts" or "She kissed the man". Also possible, but found less often, is the use of noun phrases for predication, as in "Suzy is a blonde girl". Note that in English the use of the copula is indicates the use of a noun phrase as predicate, but other languages may not require the use of the copula. Finally, noun phrases are used for identifications like "The murderer was the butler", where no ascription is taking place. The possibility for a noun phrase to play the role of subject and predicate leads to the constructions of syllogisms.

Finite Verbs

A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand by their own as complete sentences.

For example

·      I walked, they walk, and she walks are finite verbs
* (to) walk is an infinitive.

·      I lived in French.
* "I" is the subject. "Lived" describes what the subject did. "Lived" is a finite verb.

"Finite verbs can be recognized by their form and their position in the sentence. Here are some of the things to look for when you are trying to identify the finite verbs in a sentence:

    1.          Most finite verbs can take an -ed or a -d at the end of the word to indicate time in the past: cough, coughed; celebrate, celebrated. A hundred or so finite verbs do not have these endings.

    2.          Nearly all finite verbs take an -s at the end of the word to indicate the present when the subject of the verb is third-person singular: cough, he coughs; celebrate, she celebrates. The exceptions are auxiliary verbs like can and must. Remember that nouns can also end in -s. Thus the dog races can refer to a spectator sport or to a fast-moving third-person singular dog.

    3.           Finite verbs are often groups of words that include such auxiliary verbs as can, must, have, and be: can be suffering, must eat, will have gone.

News Item

News Item  is factual text which informs the readers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.

Social function of news item is: to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.

Generic structure:

·      Newsworthy Event(s):  recounts the events in summary form

·      Background Event(s):  elaborate what happened, to WHOM, in WHAT circumstances.

·      Sources:  comments by participants in, witnesses to and authorities’ expert on the event.

Significant Grammar Features:

·      Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline

·      Generally using Simple Past Tense

·      Use of Material Processes to retell the event

·      Using Action Verbs, e.g.: were, run, go, kill, etc.

·      Using Saying Verbs, e.g.: say, tell

·      Focus on Circumstances

·      Use of projecting Verbal Processes in Sources stages

There are some rules that can help to make newspaper headlines more comprehensible.

1.    The passive voice is used without the appropriate form of “be”.

Example:  Town ‘Contaminated’

Complete Sentence:  Town is contaminated.

2.    It is unusual to find complex forms, generally the simple present form is used

Example:  Fire Destroys over 2,511 acres of Forest in 2003-2004

Complete Sentence:  Fire has destroyed over 2,511 acres of forest in 2003-2004.

3.    The present progressive tense is used, usually to describe something that is changing or developing, but the auxiliary verb is usually left out.

Example:  World Heading for Energy Crisis

Complete Sentence:  The world is heading for an energy crisis.

4.    To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive.

Example:   Queen to Visit Samoa.

Complete Sentence:  The Queen is going to visit Samoa.

5.    Headlines are not always complete sentences.

Example:  More earthquakes in Japan.

Complete Sentence:  More earthquakes happened in Japan.

 

Example of News Item:

Introductory It

A       : To understand this lesson is easy.

B       : It is easy to understand this lesson.

In this pattern, it has no meaning. It is used only to fill the subject position in the sentence. Thus, it is called introductory “it”.

A and B mean the same thing, but sentence B is more common and useful than A. A was introduce mainly to make the meaning of B easier to understand.

Introductory “it” can fill the position both of the subject and object.

Introductory “it” as a subject:

·      To watch musical programs is pleasant.

It is pleasant to watch musical program.

·      To play football must be fun.

It is fun to play football.

When the subjective is an infinitive phrase

We begin a sentence with it when the real subject is an infinitive phrase. So instead of saying, ‘To accept your advice is difficult’, we say, ‘It is difficult to accept your advice’.

Structure: It + verb + subject complement + infinitive phrase (real subject)

·      It is easy to learn English. >>  (To learn English is easy).

·      It is easy to find fault with others. >>  (To find fault with others is easy).

·      It is difficult to know his motive. >>  (To know his motive is difficult).

·      It is difficult to find a good job during these troubled times.

·      It is dangerous to play with fire.

·      It could be dangerous to drive so fast.

Note :

When we wish to emphasize the infinitive phrase, it may be put at the beginning, especially when it is short.

·      To err is human OR It is human to err.

·      To become a well known writer was his life-long ambition OR It was his lifelong ambition to become a well known writer.

·      To invest all your money in shares is foolish OR It is foolish to invest all your money in shares.

When the subject is a gerund phrase

When the real subject is a phrase that includes a gerund, it is used as a provisional subject to begin the sentence. So instead of saying ‘Your trying to fool us is no good’, we say, ‘It is no good your trying to fool us.’

·      It won’t be any good complaining to the manager. (Complaining to the manager won’t be any good.)

·      It is silly throwing away this opportunity. (Throwing away this opportunity is silly.)

·      Will it be any good my talking to him about it? (Will my talking to him about it be any good?)

·      It is no fun having so many children to look after. (Having so many children to look after is no fun.)

Note that it is possible to change the gerund into an infinitive.

·      It won’t be any good for me to complain to the manager.

·      It is silly (for you) to throw away this opportunity.

·      Will it be any good for me to talk to him about it?

·      Many of these sentences can also be re-written as exclamatory sentences.

·      How silly of you to throw away this opportunity!

When the subject is a clause

When the subject is a clause, the sentence usually begins with it. So instead of saying ‘That he was once a communist is true’, we say, ‘It is true that he was once a communist’.

·      It does not matter whether he comes or not. (Whether he comes or not does not matter.)

·      It is required that he should pay the fine. (That he should pay the fine is required.)

·      It is clear that he overheard our conversation. (That he overheard our conversation is clear.)

·      It is clear that you are not interested in this offer. (That you are not interested in the offer is clear.)

·      It cannot be denied that they tried their best to help him. (That they tried their best to help him cannot be denied. )

·      It doesn’t matter whether we buy it now or later. (Whether we buy it now or later does not matter. )

Introductory it with seem, appear and look

Introductory it is also used with seem, appear and look when the subject is an infinitive phrase, a phrase with a gerund in it or a clause.

·      It looked doubtful whether she would come

·      It seemed strange that she should behave like that.

·      It seems possible that she may quit the job.

·      It appeared unwise to offend him.

·      It does not seem much good going on with the work.

Introductory it as an object

It is sometimes used as the object of the verbs think, feel, deem, count, consider etc.

·      Don’t you think it dangerous to drive so carelessly?

·      I consider it a privilege to have this opportunity of welcoming you.

·      I think it odd that she doesn’t write to me these days.

·      I think it a pity that she could not win.

·      We think it improper that he should be so dictatorial.

·      He made it clear what he wanted.

·      I find it difficult to talk to him.

Introductory it in questions

The introductory it is sometimes used in questions.

·      Who was it that broke the window?

It is Peter who broke the window.

·      Why was it that he stole the bread?

It was because he was poor that he stole the bread.

·      When was it that the manager came?

It was at 10 am that the manager came.

Descriptive Text

Descriptive text is a text which say what a person or a thing is like. Its purpose is to describe and reveal a particular person, place, or thing.

Generic Sreucture:

·      Identification  : identifies thing, person, place, phenomenon to be described.

·      Description        : gives the information of particular thing, person, or place being discussed or describes parts, qualities, or characteristics.

Grammatical Features:

·      Who? What?

·      Using Linking verb and Simple Present Tense

·      Epithet: adjective or adjective phrase

·      Attributive (the)

·      Use of attributive and identifying process

·      Focus on specific participants

·      Frequent use of epithets and classifier in nominal groups

Example of Descriptive Text :